Decentering death: The war on terror and the less‐than‐lethal paradigm

How does violent military coercion work alongside liberal democratic values in contemporary iterations of imperialism? This article shows how the less-than-lethal paradigm occludes death and perpetuates extreme forms both deadly not-deadly Iraq. Key to 2003 invasion subsequent counterinsurgency Iraq, extends across doctrine US popular discourse. Based on idea that killing is an undesirable way dominate, not necessarily benevolent or less deadly; instead, it a legal, discursive, logistical maneuver minimize political power dying global stage. Decentering death, rebrands violence by reframing war as precondition for peace, minimizing disseminating nonkilling coercion, assigning responsibility others violence. ¿Cómo la coerción militar violenta trabaja junto con valores democráticos liberales en iteraciones contemporáneas de imperialismo? Este artículo muestra cómo el paradigma menos que letal ocluye muerta y perpetúa formas extremas tanto mortal no Clave invasión subsecuente contrainsurgencia se extiende través doctrina discurso estadounidense. Basada matar es una forma indeseable dominar, necesariamente benevolente o mortal; cambio, maniobra discursiva logística para minimizar poder político muerte morir escenario global. Al descentrar muerte, renombra violencia al reenmarcar guerra como precondición paz, minimizando diseminando matar, asignar responsabilidad otros por violencia. [muerte, letal, militarismo, contra terrorismo, Iraq] Upon Iraq 2003, retired Marine Corps general James Mattis said Iraqi leaders: “I come peace. I didn't bring artillery. But I'm pleading with you, tears my eyes: if you fuck me, will kill all” (Ricks, 2006, 314). Without pleading, Mattis's claim “come peace” without artillery simply declaration against population, cowed into submission threat lethal nonlethal coercion. Dressing up invitation surrender about tearfulness lack was part building alibi audience interested humaneness preemptive war; but audience, presence one iteration decades-long foreign rife many go different names. As statement demonstrates, occupying may present itself nonlethal, gentle, even emotionally supplicant, always backed The those bearing capacity they desire foster life-sustaining care, under condition recipients care remain docile receptive. In this framework salvation subjugation, well-established motif colonial enterprise, protection harm run together. One might plead tearfully, he promises “kill all.” other words, promise peace—that all shall live—is undergirded mass consequence bad choice reject it.1 attends most recent US-led leveraged manage perception United States, also so-called campaign terrorism reflects just manifestation imperialism echoes previous eras base arguments ethnographic interviews participant observation conducted 2014, 2015, 2021, 2022, 2023 Anbari people living former personnel private contractors working various roles inside since analysis scholarship media States 2001.2 While separable from terror juridically, out ongoing Americans understand US-Iraq relations terms “long wars” “terrorism”3 (Baker, 2022; Vine, 2021) which “some were besieged wars war-related imagery” (Osman, 2022). President Bush declared September 2001, “Our begins Qaeda, end there” (National Commission Terrorist Attacks, 2004, 337). Shortly after invading Afghanistan, invaded Relying false information obtained CIA torture suspected terrorist Afghanistan linking Saddam Hussein Administration conjured evidence weapons destruction consistently spoke news relation (Singh, 2017). support (and dissent against) centered key location avenging 9/11 fighting terrorists name saving freeing lives. Then, forces met resistance over time, became site (often failed) experimentation theorization shaped approaches projects locations. Extreme worked through paradigm, united moral authorization violence, hand, occlusion other. past 20 years, has seen wide range tactics undulating degrees lethality. Hundreds thousands civilians killed occupation actions. initial Operation Freedom battles gave less-deadly containment practices more-sustained until armed insurgent redoubled (US Army, 2019). strategies then shifted toward policing featured surveillance patrols, well city-level attacks towns, including much-discussed “surge” 2007. Military comes forms: sometimes method can maximizing harm. concerned distinctions specific laws effects are branded branding entrenches imperial mean hidden its lethality decentered, erasure reframing. By “decentering” refer process disavowal either denied justified, thereby undermining value lives terror. Of particular importance question force. reality, uses maneuvers dying. Because this, primary axis consider case any context, be maximized minimized: management public occupied population determining these decisions made.4 Meanwhile, people—portrayed their unwitting victims media— suffer material continuity predated decades continues today. “less-than-lethal paradigm,” ways imagined lives, deaths, avoiding killing, at height.5 includes making discursive claims “precise,” legal (or war) prevents otherwise inevitable future dissidents subdued order conjure necessary acceptance repressive measures taken “at home” abroad (Khalili, 2013). Operationalized uniquely long historical roots. Nikhil Singh (2017, 98–99) argues, expansionism Jeffersonian concept “empire liberty” Americas Cold War militarism Asia Middle East relies “discourse disavowal” instrumental. Jasbir Puar 140) argues Right Maim, “foundational biopolitical frame fantasy produces ‘let live’ rule” because than killing. Thus, mechanisms abound include shooting injure, spatial control (Rubaii, 2019), ecological debilitation like fumigation (Lyons, 2018), intensive surveillance, psychological operations, less-lethal technologies (Machold, 2017), regimes domestic populations distance (Kapadia, 2018). scholars critical modalities have captured essence what some Iraqis targeted them call “worse death,” draw attention same paradigmatic attachment still great deal killing.6 then, number evade capture brutal. These logic certain deaths prevent more greater proportion (Samimian-Darash, 2013), delinking underlying causes dissipation (De León, 2015), discounting bodies (Mbembe, 2020). bundles universalizes economies of, ideologies support, Gluck Maharawal (this section) argue, security countering become major axes reproducing rearticulating present. justifying public, hegemonic (1) (2) ostensibly (3) (4) turn neither undeadly nor sustains appear innovative humane benefitting public. Claims newness made possible rebranding while maintaining extending insights demonstrate article, lived empire targets contradict empire's own alibis works. term paradigm” own, though indexed names: example, “non-lethal” Department Defense Non-Lethal Weapons Program,7 “less-lethal” “less-than-lethal” Nations guides policing.8 “nonlethal” often used describe themselves, reflect broader justified strategically pivotal intimate engagement civilian called “counterinsurgency,” “small wars,” “low-intensity warfare,” “population-centric “policing.” 2007 Army Counterinsurgency Field Manual, drafted consumption collection social scientists, seeks formulate elsewhere humanizing philosophy manual draws attempts humanize warfare post–World II human rights emerged. It portrays “a modernizing instrument . could build schools clinics easily fighting” 2013, 48). Indeed, post-2003 continued “armed work” perpetuated myriad (Kilcullen, 2010). Yet, nondeadly coercion,9 such very little harmed do register distinct When Jameel discuss his child's congenital anomaly him walking. Jameel, doctors, epidemiologists link son's heavy-metal exposure detritus first second 1990s 2000s. himself 12 when airstrike shattered house right leg. He cast, turning 13, family fled Fallujah school shelter. “The laughing threw smoke bombs school,” terrorizing men, women, children who sheltered there, said. They routinely busted repurposed classrooms, “looking terrorists,” instead finding sons daughters clutching dolls blankets. pulled back pant leg show shin bone, evoke memory broken leg, injustice body. Now, 18 years later, father. Like legs, bear mark so much points demonstration multiple generations bodies, environmental damage. asks why leave son alone. facilitates maintenance claiming experienced “worth it,”10 happening, (Moyn, 2021).11 following sections, frames conditions coercive civilians, deploys ultimately exports onto parties themselves. A critique must attend domination war's unfortunate backdrop aftermath. war. rationale preemption rooted globalized logics produced during War, being intervention protect life securitizing (Masco, 2014). Preemption replaces context speculated future, appears (Hajjar, What makes less-than-lethal, outcomes acting aggressively enough soon enough. Drawing logic, argument would swift. proclamation swift Iraq—“Our overriding principle speed, speed” (Warren, 2005, 426)—demonstrates how, quite opposite “do harm,” condemns failing whole mission structured indiscriminately, soldiers told there civilians: anyone city assumed combatant, hardcore terrorist. We did allow military-age flee city. forced stay inside. things house-to-house “fire reconnaissance,” means fire hear nothing, safe enter. definition tactic crime. we three weeks. Caputi's experience defined peaceability: labeled framed undeserving protection. If eliminated, “killed” chose die throwing themselves pleads eyes supplication, lest all, addressees slipped categories “killable” showing signs opposition. He, leaders Casey Petraeus, faced 136) posits core unifying feature am calling paradigm: “How stripped away actually exterminating population?” Coercive Laura Nader (1996) calls “coercive harmony,” “stronger parties” invoke ideology compromise solidarity hampers “weaker seeking recourse. therefore, sets rights, live, speak predicated upon surrendering one's uprising: regime gentle subjects behave. Translating activity infrastructures. Hence ensure sustenance settler colonialism modern interventionist unpersuasively claims, “We don't want stay.” unpersuasive untrue effect, population-centric structures rules, persistent focus civilians. (212) infrastructure treats entire permanent occupier militarization 2021). reason withdrawal formal places induce chaotic civil therefore justify myopic countries need supervision function. powerful country should thus longer actively [and geographically] neutralise potential threat, anywhere aspatial. engineer situation whereby unacceptable enemies attack us. words: maintain Total times Peace? Vigar describes peace satirically, imagining daily geared mitigation total preparedness routine. becomes stabilized, state benefit structural stability. “peace” read “order” interrogated question, “for whom?” (Virilio Lotringer, 2008). Peace perpetual war, spite millions, save millions anticipating responding before happens 2014; Samimian-Darash, Essentially, works actual potential. ever discourse, lost States’ peripheral subjects: been resisting continue doing so. troops redeployed 2020, open named component widespread corruption. Some interlocutors bemoaned had disarmed efforts, reducing tribes resist outsiders. Perugini Neve Gordon (2015), Human Dominate, argue considered killable armies, especially ex-colonies, matter classification proximity kind, based increasingly algorithms inform remote broadening classifications killability, efforts litigate leverage international law meant facilitate Scholars Lisa Hajjar David Kennedy argued deploying shrinks exercise “right life.” join considering heart live.14 sanctity life, implementation centers force (Kennedy, 2007). According interlocutors, shrunk category violence—either kill—through uprising. Cashing only attainable accepts legitimacy surrenders preempts possibility framing dissenter's problem. reconnaissance described Caputi, teleologically proves really all. sanctions aggression defense. epistemic physical empire. justifies project less-than-visible Vietnam proved unwilling fight costs: draft coverage among Vietnamese two contributors protest States. Body bags draped American flags recognized symbol costs wars. Widespread dissent, included student protestors assassination movement Martin Luther King Jr., articulated collective discourse rejecting government's authority deploy lesson learned, onset president George W. renewed father's 1991 ban images dead particularly soldiers’ coffins. reinforced policy limit journalistic press embedded units. Additionally, response November interview Secretary Rumsfeld, CBS News: body counts. tried Vietnam, work.” echoed 2002 comment General Franks, involved (Hyndman, case, deliberate obfuscation prevented seeing transnational connections result accountability action. model “Dover test,” coined Senator Glenn, asked 1994, “Will opinion Congress coffins start coming Dover, Delaware?” (the Defense's mortuary affairs office). effort managing limiting keeping counts epistemological using tolls measure eclipses horror (Gregory, 2014) impact invisible dismembered Americans. disavows brushing aside rendering collateral noble cause. hidden, reframed acceptance. For descriptions action laced language precision cultural sensitivity anesthetizes Even destructive shock-and-awe “speed, maneuver, shock extensive covert preparation battlefield, strikes significant targets, dominance.”15 Precision bombing—the bomb accurately reduce casualties—has continuously honed bombing World II. development drone program, commonplace accounts eliciting consent accuracy. now rare find word “bombing” “strike” prefix adjective “surgical” “precision” depictions On ground counterterrorism forces, initially deployed Task Force 714, limited capturing senior officials Ba'ath Party, quickly dissolved (Shultz, fall “the realization set TF-714 change strategic scalpel industrial-strength CT machine” 2018, 104).16 Here, precise (scalpel) later efficient (machine) prevailed enormous quantities destruction. institutional formulation provided deregulation taking oversight ordinarily prevailing operations. interviewed on-the-ground practitioners—former Europe served early 2000s careers within country. Many version gap between says does. Able, British contractor combat EMT (emergency medical technician) training, answered questions greatest concern casualty occurred saying, “Two plausible deniability.” Rather center whether actions kill, Able's registers markless torture,17 best remains deniability, meaning ability likely “insurgents” Sometimes fewer, look lifesaving. At higher level command, well, rather practice dominated strategy. symposium commemorating twentieth anniversary Command Perkins said: “[On eve withdrawal] said, happen: b-roll (that's footage) headlines there.” here impact. However, ops changed disproportionately dismemberment, displacement, dispossession whom new imperialism. continuity, despite authorizing obscuring apparent “fight terrorism” robust During fieldwork, few reference “war terror,” it. Older men joke, “Remember communists?” “Are tourist terrorist?” jokes articulate remain, discourses shift, labels obscure disavow death. “terrorist” (as diaspora been), speech-act someone “communist” era—the suspicion communism terrorism, place where located—generates killable, narrated salvation, elimination, harm, blame four moves manuscript paradigm). disavowed, whose disposable Other comments detailed comparative differences occupation. consensus older generations, good countries; failed infrastructure, curfews, appropriate army. perceived old thing. administrations deploye